Title: Xochimilco's sunken treasure
, By: Ayres, Alison, New Scientist, 02624079, 4/10/2004, Vol. 182, Issue
2442
Hernán Cortés and his conquistadors caught their first
glimpse of the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán in November 1519.
As they looked down from the mountains, the city appeared to float on
the surface of a vast, shimmering lake. The Spaniards thought they had
found another Venice, not realising that much of what they saw was reclaimed
land.
The Aztecs had created a labyrinth of islands
in the lake with the help of their own sewage. These fertile mounds
supported one of the most productive agricultural systems the world
has ever seen — but Cortés took scant notice of that. Horrified
by the ritual of human sacrifice, he captured and destroyed Tenochtitlán
with great energy, and initiated the building of Mexico City on its
ruins. Since then, one area of the original lake has resisted centuries
of drainage. The floating gardens of Xochimilco are a reminder of Aztec
ingenuity, and an ancient practice that might solve some of the modern
city's sanitation problems.
TENOCHTITLAN, the wondrous Aztec capital city,
lay in the Valley of Mexico, a vast landlocked basin surrounded by mountains
thrown up by volcanic activity. When the Aztecs arrived in the valley
in the 14th century, they found five great lakes. They chose to settle
on the swamplands around Lake Texcoco and began to build themselves
a city on a small island in the lake. It was an inhospitable, impractical
location but they were following the directions of the god Huitzilopochtli,
who had told them to build where they saw an eagle eating a snake perched
on a cactus.
Pushed for space on their island, the Aztecs
began to reclaim land from shallow regions of the lake. They piled up
soil from the shore and sludge from the lake bed into rectangular wedges
of land, or chinampas. The chinampas were up to 200 metres long but
never more than 10 metres wide. The chinamperos, the farmers who cultivated
the land, floated along the canals between them, tending the crops from
their flat-bottomed canoes.
The chinampas were extraordinarily fertile. Seven
crops could be harvested in one year and irrigation was unnecessary
because water constantly seeped into the soil from the canals. The secret
of their fertility was the Aztecs' sophisticated method of composting
and mulching, sustained by the sludge at the bottom of the lake. Chinamperos
would endlessly trawl the canals in their canoes, dragging up thick
sediment from the bottom with a cloth sack on the end of a pole. They
would then spread it on their land. Human faeces were part of the mix,
so chinampas farming doubled up as Tenochtitlán's sewage treatment
works. Most sewage went straight into the canals and became part of
the sludge at the bottom. Some was spread directly on the soil and covered
with sludge.
As the area of chinampas expanded, the Aztec
city flourished. The artificial islands produced enough food for the
city's 300,000 inhabitants — and a formidable army. The Aztec
empire eventually spread to nearly every corner of present-day Mexico,
but it lasted less than a century. Cortés and his conquistadors
reached Mexico's shores early in 1519, and in 1521 conquered Tenochtitlán
and razed the city.
The Spanish wasted no time importing their European
style of construction to build Mexico City on the ruins of the Aztec
capital. They began to drain the lake to control flooding and create
more land for building. The drainage continued over centuries, and thousands
of hectares of chinampas disappeared.
Chinampas farming might have died out altogether
were it not for the fact that one part of the lake at Xochimilco on
the southern edge of Mexico City would never stay dry. Today, this area
of some 30 square kilometres is all that remains of the original chinampas.
It is home to descendants of the people of Tenochtitlán who speak
the Aztec language Nahuatl and farm using the ancient methods.
In the early 1980s, a team of scientists working
for an organisation called the Grupo de Tecnologia Alternativa (Alternative
Technology Group) began to visit Xochimilco. They were trying to find
cheap, sustainable ways to provide sanitation for some of Mexico's poorest
people. The director of GTA, architect Josefina Mena Abraham, became
intrigued by a tantalising feature of life at Xochimilco.
The modern chinamperos were still sending their
sewage into the canals of Xochimilco, yet the water didn't stink and
there were no problems with the kind of pathogens normally associated
with human waste. The team began to sample sludge dredged up from the
canals, taking it to their laboratories for analysis. One day, a student
who had been sterilising equipment in an autoclave noticed that one
microbe resisted the treatment, surviving a temperature of 220°C.
Among the bacteria living in the Xochimilco sludge
was one that was thermophilic — a heat-loving microbe similar
to those found in geothermal vent and hot springs. Mena Abraham was
intrigued. Perhaps this unusual bacterium was the key to the Aztecs'
success in dealing with their sewage and creating one of the most productive
farming systems ever known. She asked Michael Cole, a soil microbiologist
at the University of Illinois in Chicago, to take a closer look at it.
Cole found that the bacterium had several characteristics
that would make it an excellent composter. It binds nitrogen, the most
valuable nutrient in human waste. It neutralises dangerous pathogens
in sewage, although no one yet knows how. And it speeds up the decomposition
of organic waste.
Mena Abraham cultured the bacterium in her lab
and the GTA began to think about how it could be incorporated into their
designs for sustainable sewage treatment systems. "We wanted to
be able to reproduce the characteristics of the sludge we had found
at Xochimilco in a modern machine, and we wanted the bacteria to live
and reproduce in that sludge," says Mena Abraham. She started work
on a small-scale sewage treatment plant that mimicked the canals of
Xochimilco.
The idea was to pipe sewage into a settling tank,
with a layer of sludge at the bottom seeded with the chinampas bacteria.
The bacteria would make the sewage safe and, at intervals, some of the
mix would be vented from the tank into a compost bin filled with household
scraps and garden waste. The bacteria would then go to work on this,
producing a high-quality organic fertiliser made the same way as it
was in Xochimilco. If conditions in the settlement tank were right,
the bacteria in the sludge would quickly replace those removed to the
compost bin.
But Mena Abraham couldn't help wondering why
a heat-loving bacterium was living in the bed of Lake Texcoco. In her
spare time, she started to research the longer sweep of history in the
Valley of Mexico and discovered that around 2000 years ago a devastating
drought had hit the region, drying out nearly all of the lakes for more
than a thousand years. It had been caused by the eruption of Xitle,
a nearby volcano, which must have showered the valley floor with debris.
Mena Abraham believes this was the source of the bacterium.
The GTA has now developed a system for recycling
organic waste, which it calls Sirdo. The system can be as simple as
a composting toilet or a more complex sewage treatment plant serving
an entire apartment block and producing a valuable by-product in the
form of garden fertiliser. In both cases, the key ingredient is the
bacterium from the chinampas.
When the Spanish arrived at Tenochtitlán,
it was one of the largest cities in the world, yet it was noted for
its cleanliness. Mexico City is one of the modern world's biggest cities
— but its dirtiness is legendary. Mena Abraham believes it is
time for its inhabitants to get back to their Aztec roots and learn
a few lessons from Tenochtitlaán's chinampas.
~~~~~~~~
By Alison Ayres
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